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Apollo 16 April 16 — 27, was the tenth crewed mission in the United States Apollo space programadministered by NASAand the fifth and next-to-last to land on the Moon.
It was the second of Apollo's " J missions ", with an extended stay on the lunar surface, a focus on science, and the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle LRV. The landing and exploration were in the Descartes Highlandsa site chosen because some scientists expected it to be an area formed by volcanic action, though this proved to not be the case.
The mission was crewed by Commander John Youngapollo 13 essay, Lunar Module Pilot Charles Duke and Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly. Launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida on April 16,Apollo 16 experienced a number of minor glitches en route to the Moon. These culminated with a problem with the spaceship's main engine that resulted in a six-hour delay in the Moon landing as NASA managers contemplated having the astronauts abort the mission and return to Earth, before deciding the problem could be overcome.
Although they permitted the lunar landing, NASA had the astronauts return from apollo 13 essay mission one day earlier than planned. After flying the lunar module apollo 13 essay the Moon's surface on April 21, Young apollo 13 essay Duke spent 71 hours—just under three days—on the lunar surface, during which they conducted three extra-vehicular activities or moonwalks, totaling 20 hours and 14 minutes.
The pair drove the lunar rover, the second used on the Moon, for On the surface, Young and Duke collected During this time Command Module Pilot Mattingly orbited the Moon in the command and service module CSMtaking photos and operating scientific instruments. Mattingly, in the command module, spent hours and 64 revolutions in lunar orbit.
During the return trip to Earth, Mattingly performed a one-hour spacewalk to retrieve several film cassettes from the exterior of the service module. Apollo 16 returned safely to Earth on April 27, John Young, apollo 13 essay, the mission commander, was 41 years old and a captain in the Navy at the time of Apollo Becoming an astronaut in as part of the second group to be selected by NASAhe flew in Gemini 3 with Gus Grissom inbecoming the first American not of the Mercury Seven to fly in space.
He thereafter flew in Gemini 10 with Michael Collins and as command module pilot of Apollo 10 With Apollo 16, he became the second American, after Jim Lovellto fly in space four times. Thomas Kenneth "Ken" Mattingly, the command module pilot, was 36 years old and a lieutenant commander in the Navy at the time of Apollo Mattingly had been selected in NASA's fifth group of astronauts in He was a member of the support crew for Apollo 8 and Apollo 9.
Had Anders left NASA before Apollo 11 flew, Mattingly would have taken his place on the backup crew. Apollo 13 essay had originally been assigned to the prime crew of Apollo 13but was exposed to rubella through Duke, apollo 13 essay, at that time with Young on Apollo 13's apollo 13 essay crew—Duke had caught it from one of his children.
Mattingly never contracted the illness, but three days before launch was removed from the crew and replaced by his backup, Jack Swigert. Apollo 16's backup crew consisted of Fred W. Haise Jr. commander, who had flown on Apollo 13apollo 13 essay, Stuart A.
Roosa CMP, who had flown on Apollo 14 and Edgar D. Mitchell LMP, also Apollo Pogue CMP and Gerald P. Carr LMPwho were targeted for the prime crew assignment on Apollo Subsequently, Roosa and Mitchell were assigned to the backup crew, while Pogue and Carr were reassigned to the Skylab program where they flew on Skylab 4.
For projects Mercury and Gemini, a prime and a backup crew had been designated, but for Apollo, a third group of astronauts, known as the support crew, was also designated. Slayton created the support crews early in the Apollo Program on the advice of Apollo crew commander James McDivittwho would lead Apollo 9, apollo 13 essay. McDivitt believed that, with preparation going on in facilities across the U.
Support crew members were to assist as directed by the mission commander. EnglandKarl G. HenizeHenry W. Hartsfield Jr. Overmyer and Apollo 13 essay H. Flight directors were Pete Frank and Philip Shafferfirst shift, apollo 13 essay, Gene Kranz and Donald R. Puddysecond shift, and Gerry GriffinNeil B, apollo 13 essay.
Hutchinson and Charles R, apollo 13 essay. Lewisthird shift. IrwinEngland, Peterson, Hartsfield, and C, apollo 13 essay. Gordon Fullerton. The insignia of Apollo 16 is dominated by a rendering of an American eagle and a red, apollo 13 essay, white and blue shield, representing the people of the United States, over a gray background representing the apollo 13 essay surface, apollo 13 essay.
Overlaying the shield is a gold NASA vector, apollo 13 essay, orbiting the Moon. On its gold-outlined blue border, there are 16 stars, representing the mission number, and the names of the crew members: Young, Mattingly, Duke.
Young and Duke chose "Orion" for the lunar module's call sign, while Mattingly chose "Casper" for the command and service module. According to Duke, he and Young chose "Orion" for the LM because they wanted something connected with the stars.
Apollo 16 was the second of Apollo's Apollo 13 essay missionsfeaturing the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicleincreased scientific capability, and three-day apollo 13 essay surface stays. Scientists sought information on the Moon's early history, which might be obtained from its ancient surface features, the lunar highlands.
Previous Apollo expeditions, including Apollo apollo 13 essay and Apollo 15had obtained samples of pre- mare lunar material, likely thrown from the highlands by meteorite impacts. These were dated from before lava began to upwell from the Moon's interior and flood the low areas and basins.
Nevertheless, no Apollo mission had actually visited the lunar highlands. Apollo 14 had visited and sampled a ridge of material ejected by the impact that created the Mare Imbrium impact basin. Likewise, Apollo 15 had also sampled apollo 13 essay in the region of Imbrium, visiting the basin's edge. Because the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 landing sites were closely associated with the Imbrium basin, there was still the chance that different geologic processes were prevalent in areas of the lunar highlands far from Mare Imbrium.
They hoped scientific output from the Apollo 16 mission would provide an answer. The Ad Hoc Apollo Site Evaluation Committee met in April and May to decide the Apollo 16 and 17 landing sites; it was chaired by Noel Hinners of Bellcomm. There was consensus the final landing sites should be in the lunar highlands, and among the sites considered for Apollo 16 were the Descartes Highlands region apollo 13 essay of Mare Nectaris and the crater Alphonsus.
At Alphonsus, three scientific objectives were determined to be of primary interest and paramount importance: the possibility of old, pre-Imbrium impact material from within the crater's wall, the composition of the crater's interior and the possibility of past volcanic activity on the floor of the crater at several smaller "dark halo" craters.
Geologists feared, however, that samples obtained from the crater might have been contaminated by the Imbrium impact, thus preventing Apollo 16 from obtaining samples of pre-Imbrium material. There also remained the distinct possibility that this objective would have already been satisfied by the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 missions, as the Apollo 14 samples had not yet been completely analyzed and samples from Apollo 15 had not yet been obtained.
On June 3,the site selection committee decided to target the Apollo 16 mission for the Descartes site. With the assistance of orbital photography obtained on the Apollo 14 mission, the Apollo 13 essay site was determined to be safe enough for a crewed landing. The specific landing site was between two young impact craters, North Ray and South Ray craters — 1, and m 3, and 2, ft in diameter, respectively — which provided "natural drill holes" which penetrated through the lunar regolith at the site, thus leaving exposed bedrock that could be sampled by the crew.
After the selection, mission planners made the Descartes and Cayley formations, two geologic units of the lunar highlands, the primary sampling interest of the mission. It was these formations that the scientific community widely suspected were formed by lunar volcanism, but this hypothesis was proven incorrect by the composition of lunar samples from the mission.
In addition to the usual Apollo spacecraft training, Young and Duke, along with backup commander Fred Haise, underwent an extensive geological training program that included several field trips to introduce them to concepts and techniques they would use in analyzing features and collecting samples on the lunar surface. During these trips, they visited and provided scientific descriptions of geologic features they were likely to encounter.
Before that, Tony England a member of the support crew and the lunar EVA CAPCOM apollo 13 essay one of the geologist trainers would train alongside Haise on geology field trips, apollo 13 essay. Since Descartes was believed to be volcanic, a good deal of this training was geared towards volcanic rocks and features, but field trips were made to sites featuring other sorts of rock. As Young later commented, the non-volcanic training proved more useful, given that Descartes did not prove to be volcanic.
astronauts trained in Canada. During the training exercises the astronauts did not wear space suitsapollo 13 essay, but carried radio equipment to converse with each other and England, practicing procedures apollo 13 essay would use on the lunar surface.
For the exercise at the Nevada Test Sitewhere the massive craters left by nuclear explosions, simulated the large craters to be found on the Moon, all participants had to have security clearance and a listed next-of-kin, and an overflight by CMP Mattingly required special permission.
In addition to the field geology training, Young and Duke also trained to use their EVA space suits, adapt to the reduced lunar gravity, collect samples, and drive the Lunar Roving Vehicle, apollo 13 essay. This training helped Young and Duke, while on the Moon, quickly realize that the expected volcanic rocks were not there, even though the geologists in Mission Control initially did not believe them.
The launch vehicle which took Apollo 16 to the Moon was a Saturn Vdesignated as AS This was the eleventh Saturn V to be flown and the ninth used on crewed missions. Apollo 16's Saturn V was almost identical to Apollo 15's. One change that was made was the restoration of four retrorockets to the S-IC first stage, meaning there would be a total of eight, as on Apollo 14 and earlier, apollo 13 essay. The retrorockets were used to minimize the risk apollo 13 essay collision between the jettisoned first stage and the Saturn V.
These four retrorockets had been omitted from Apollo 15's Saturn V to save weight, but analysis of Apollo 15's flight showed that the S-IC came closer than expected after jettison and it was feared that if there were only four rockets and one failed, there apollo 13 essay be a collision.
As on all lunar landing missions after Apollo 11, an Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package ALSEP was flown on Apollo This was a suite of nuclear-powered experiments designed to keep apollo 13 essay after the astronauts who set them up returned to Earth. The PSE added to the network of seismometers left by Apollo 12, 14 and The thumpers would be exploded during apollo 13 essay ALSEP apollo 13 essay. A second group was four mortars of different sizes, to be set off remotely once the astronauts had returned to Earth.
Apollo 14 had also carried an ASE, though its mortars were never set off for fear of affecting other experiments. The HFE involved the drilling of two 3. This was the third attempt to emplace a HFE: apollo 13 essay first flew on Apollo 13 and never reached the lunar surface, while on Apollo 15, apollo 13 essay, problems with the drill meant the probes did not go as deep as planned.
The Apollo 16 attempt would fail after Duke had successfully emplaced the first probe; Young, unable to see his feet in the bulky spacesuit, pulled out and severed the cable after it wrapped around his leg. NASA managers vetoed a repair attempt due to the amount of time it would take. The LSM was designed to measure the strength of the Moon's magnetic field, which is only a small fraction of Earth's. Additional data would be returned by the use of the Lunar Portable Magnetometer, to be carried on the lunar rover and activated at several geology stops.
Scientists also hoped to learn from an Apollo 12 sample, to be briefly returned to the Moon on Apollo 16, from which "soft" magnetism had been removed, to see if it had been restored on its journey.
apollo 13 - from problem to solution
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The Apollo Lunar Module, or simply Lunar Module (LM / ˈ l ɛ m /), originally designated the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM), was the Lunar lander spacecraft that was flown between lunar orbit and the Moon's surface during the United States' Apollo blogger.com was the first crewed spacecraft to operate exclusively in the airless vacuum of space, and remains the only crewed vehicle to land Essay topics from the apollo 13 mission Argumentation essay. Parallel parenting essay professional academic essay editor services for mba trucker resume examples, how to write a free response. Advice to freshmen in high school essay custom admission essay writing for hire us outlines for paper writing, earth essay student essays summary Jan 05, · apollo 8 orbits the moon December The tumultuous year ended on a positive note, at least, as three astronauts aboard Apollo 8 — Jim Lovell,
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